FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Definition of Figurative Language

Figurative language is any figure of speech which depends on a non-literal meaning of some or all of the words used. There are many types of figurative language, including literary devices such as simile, metaphor, personification, and many pun examples, to name just a few. The definition of figurative language is opposite to that of literal language, which involves only the “proper” or dictionary definitions of words. Figurative language usually requires the reader or listener to understand some extra nuances, context, allusions, etc. in order to understand the second meaning. However, figurative language is such a common part of regular speech that adult native speakers of a language can just as easily interpret figurative language as literal language.

Types of Figurative Language

So many literary devices qualify as figurative language that the following list is certainly not exhaustive. These are the main examples of figurative language:

• Simile: A comparison between two unlike things through the use of connecting words, usually “like” or “as.”
• Metaphor: A rhetorical figure of speech that compares two subjects without the use of “like” or “as.”
• Extended Metaphor: Sometimes known as a conceit or sustained metaphor, an extended metaphor is a metaphor that an author develops over the course of many lines or even an entire work of literature.
• Hyperbole: The use of obvious and deliberate exaggeration.
• Understatement: A way of speaking which minimizes the significance of something.
• Metonymy: A figure of speech in which something is called by a new name that is related in meaning to the original thing or concept.
• Paradox: The juxtaposition of a set of seemingly contradictory concepts that reveal a hidden and/or unexpected truth.
• Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which two seemingly opposing and contradictory elements are juxtaposed.
• Allusion: A literary device used to reference another object outside of the work of literature.
• Pun: A play on words which usually hinges on a word with more than one meaning or the substitution of a homonym that changes the meaning of the sentence for humorous or rhetorical effect.
• Personification: The projection of characteristics that normally belong only to humans onto inanimate objects, animals, deities, or forces of nature.
• Onomatopoeia: A word that phonetically mimics or resembles the sound of the thing it describes.

Common Examples of Figurative Language

Most examples of idiom in English are also figurative language examples, such as the following:

• Actions speak louder than words.
• The ball is in your court.
• You can’t judge a book by its cover.
• We’ll cross that bridge when we come to it.
• I’ll play devil’s advocate.
• Every cloud has a silver lining.
• You’ve hit the nail on the head.
• It happens once in a blue moon.
• She stole my thunder.

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Significance of Figurative Language in Literature

Ancient philosophers such as Aristotle (Greek) and Quintilian (Roman) were some of the first to theorize about the use and function of figurative language. Aristotle argued that figurative language was not merely an embellishment, but instead mirror the way humans actually process information, which is to say by comparing it to things we already know. Thus, when we use the simile, “Her fleece was white as snow,” this isn’t to provide a trivial comparison but instead to help the reader or listener imagine the purity of Mary’s lamb’s fleece.

We can find examples of figurative language in the majority of literary works. This is both because there are so many literary devices that qualify as figurative language and also because the human mind responds well to different types of figurative language. Indeed, many studies have shown that figurative language comes naturally to children and that it helps them understand new concepts. Therefore, when authors use examples of figurative language, they are trying to provide fresh or unique new ways of explaining things. However, they are also triggering a very important part of the human mind and creating new synapses.

Examples of Figurative Language in Literature

Example #1: Allusion

Are you then Virgil, the fountainhead
that pours so full a stream of speech?”
I answered him, my head bent low in shame.”
O glory and light of all other poets,
let my long study and great love avail
that made me delve so deep into your volume.
You are my teacher and my author.
You are the one from whom alone I took
the noble style that has brought me honor.”

(Inferno by Dante Alighieri)

Dante’s Inferno is filled with examples of allusions, as one of the main purposes was to condemn contemporary Italians from Dante’s day. The main allusion is to the poet Virgil, who serves as the guide to the underworld. Dante introduces Virgil in the above excerpt from the epic poem. Readers have to understand the character and importance of Virgil to understand the true meaning of this alliance; without this piece of figurative understanding the reader would miss out on many key aspects of the poem.

Example #2: Metaphor

JAQUES: All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances

(As You Like It by William Shakespeare)

William Shakespeare used numerous examples of figurative language in his plays and poetry. Indeed, most literary devices can be found somewhere in his texts. The above quote from his comedy As You Like It is one of the most famous examples of metaphor in all of literature. The character of Jaques is explaining to the Duke that life is much like actors in a play. Indeed, Jaques doesn’t just say that the world is “like” a stage; he avers that life is indeed a stage. This is a powerful metaphor from Shakespeare’s works as it explains what was most likely a truism for Shakespeare’s own life.

Example #3: Metonymy

MARC ANTONY: Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.

(Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare)

Metonymy uses a part of the whole to refer to the whole. In this case, Marc Antony asks friends and Romans to “lend [him their] ears.” He is using the metonymic understanding of “ears” to refer to the entirety of their attention. He is, perhaps, being a bit humble in this request, as his eulogy for Caesar turns out to be a feat of rhetoric. Marc Anthony uses many different examples of figurative language to build his emotional appeal and connect with the listeners.

Example #4: Personification

But the Raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only
That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did outpour.
Nothing farther then he uttered—not a feather then he fluttered—
Till I scarcely more than muttered “Other friends have flown before—
On the morrow he will leave me, as my Hopes have flown before.”
Then the bird said “Nevermore.”

(“The Raven” by Edgar Allen Poe)

Edgar Allen Poe’s diabolical bird in his famous poem “The Raven” is a good example of personification. The bird takes on emotions such as loneliness and concepts like a soul, as well as the ability to speak. This bird ends up being a window into the narrator’s mind as he begins to go a bit insane. The personification is to show that not all is right with the narrator’s world.

Example #5: Hyperbole

I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you
Till China and Africa meet,
And the river jumps over the mountain
And the salmon sing in the street,
I’ll love you till the ocean
Is folded and hung up to dry

(“As I Walked One Evening” by W.H. Auden)

W.H. Auden uses many examples of hyperbole to describe his love in his poem “As I Walked One Evening.” It is popular to use hyperbole in love poetry, as it demonstrates the depths of the speaker’s love.

Book Review Writing Examples

Examples: Learn from the efforts of others

Learning how to write strong reviews takes time and not a little effort. Reading the reviews others have done can help you get a feel for the flow and flavor of reviews.

1. If I Never Forever Endeavor
Review by Hayden, age 4, Southeast Michigan Mensa

This book was about a bird who didn't yet know how to fly.

The bird has to decide if it will try to fly, but it was not sure if it wants to. The bird thought, "If I never forever endeavor" then I won't ever learn. On one wing, he worries he might fail and on the other wing he thinks of how he may succeed. He worries that if he tries, he may get lost in the world. That makes him want to stay in his nest where he's safe.

I think this book would help other children to learn that trying new things can be scary, but sometimes when we try, we can find things that make us happy too. And this book will help others know that mistakes are okay and part of learning.

My favorite part is that the bird tried and learned that she could fly. I also liked that I read this book because it gave me a chance to talk to mom about making mistakes and how I don't like making them. Then I learned they are good and part of learning.

Boys and girls who are 3 to 8 years old would like this book because it teaches about trying a new thing and how it's important to get past being scared so you can learn new things.

I give the book 5 stars since I think it's important for other children to learn about courage.

2. Frankenstein's Cat
Review by Zander H., age 12, Mid-America Mensa

I appreciated Frankenstein's Cat for its fascinating explanation about the often baffling subject of bioengineering and its sister sciences. Emily Anthes explains the many sides of today's modern technology, such as gene modification, cloning, pharmaceutical products (from the farm), prosthesis, animal tag and tracking and gene cryogenics. This book provides a well-rounded summary of these complicated sciences without being boring or simply factual. Her real world examples take us on a journey from the farm, to the pet store and then from the pharmacy to the frozen arc.

Have you ever wondered if the neighborhood cat is spying on you? Read about Operation Acoustic Kitty and find out if this feline fantasy fiction or fact. Do you think bugs are creepy? What about a zombified cyborg beetle? Is Fido so special that you want two of him? Money can buy you an almost exact copy of your pooch BUT don't expect the same personality. Emily Anthes makes you crave more information. She makes you want to know the future of Earth's flora and fauna, as well as humanity itself.

I would highly recommend this book to anyone who desires a guide to the future of biological science and technology. Frankenstein's Cat is best read by the light of a glow-in-the-dark fish, while cuddling your favorite cloned dog and drinking a glass of genetically modified milk.

3. I Capture the Castle

Review by Lauren W., age 17, Mensa in Georgia

Dodie Smith's novel I Capture the Castle is a journey through the mind of a young writer as she attempts to chronicle her daily life. Seventeen-year-old Cassandra Mortmain has recently learned to speed-write, and she decides to work on her writing skills by describing the actions and conversations of those around her.

Cassandra lives in a fourteenth-century English castle with an interesting cast of characters: her beautiful older sister, Rose; her rather unsociable author father and his second wife, artist-model Topaz; Stephen, the garden boy; a cat and a bull terrier; and sometimes her brother Thomas when he is home from school. One fateful day they make the acquaintance of the Cotton family, including the two sons, and a web of tangled relationships ensues.

While I definitely recommend this book to other readers, I would recommend it to older teenagers, mainly because it will resonate better with them. The writing is tame enough that younger teens could also read it, but most of the characters are adults or on the verge of adulthood. Older readers would take the most from it since they can not only relate, but they may also better pick up on and appreciate Cassandra's sometimes subtle humor.

Over the course of the novel, Cassandra undergoes a definite transformation from child to mature young adult, even though it's only over the course of several months. I love that I could see into her mindset and read exactly what she was feeling when she thought out situations. Her thoughts flowed well and moved the book along very quickly.

Cassandra's narrative voice is wonderful. She is serious at times, but also very witty, which makes for an engaging read. It feels absolutely real, as though I'm reading someone's actual journal. Sometimes I forget that I am reading a story and not a real-life account. Her emotions and the dialogue are so genuine, and they are spot-on for a seventeen-year-old girl in her situation.

Cassandra has many wonderful insights on life, on topics ranging from writing to faith to matters of the heart. I personally have had some of the same thoughts as Cassandra, except Ms. Smith was able to put them into words.

Capture the Castle should be essential reading for aspiring writers, those looking for historical fiction or romance, or anyone who loves reading amazing classic books. Dodie Smith is an exceptional writer, and I Capture the Castle is a book that will never become obsolete.

THE 5 VERB FORMS

THE 5 VERB FORMS

Most of us know about verb tenses, but we tend to forget that the tenses are formed from the four verb forms. Learning the four basic forms of verbs can help us figure out the various tenses. The four forms of verbs are the base form, the infinitive form, the past form, the present participle, and the past participle.

BASE FORM

The base form is simply the verb itself. Sometimes we refer to a verb by its base form: call, toss, decontaminate. Sometimes we refer to it by its infinitive form: to call, to toss, to decontaminate.

Examples:

• admit
• debunk
• escape
• swim
• think
• be

INFINITIVE FORM

The infinitive form is identical to the base form, though in actual usage, it frequently appears with the word to at the beginning.

Examples:

• (to) admit
• (to) debunk
• (to) escape
• (to) swim
• (to) think
• (to) be

PAST FORM

In regular verbs, the past form ends in -ed. Unfortunately, there are a great many irregular verbs in English and the rules for forming their past forms are varied. Many of these verbs are common, however, and already come naturally to us. If you are unsure of a verb's past form, look it up in a dictionary.

Examples:

• admitted
• debunked
• escaped
• swam (irregular)
• thought (irregular)
• was/were (irregular)

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle is always formed by adding -ing to the end of the base form. Sometimes this requires eliminating a vowel or doubling a consonant.

Examples:

• admitting
• debunking
• escaping
• swimming
• thinking
• being

PAST PARTICIPLE

In regular verbs, the past participle is the same as the past form. Again, however, there are many irregular verbs and these often take different forms as past participles. There’s nothing to do but learn the various forms of irregular past participles. Again, if you are unsure, consult a dictionary or other reference work. If it helps, the past participle is the form that goes with has or have.

• (have) admitted
• (have) debunked
• (have) escaped
• (have) swum (irregular)
• (have) thought
• (have) been (irregular)

In a future article, I will explain how you can use these five simple forms to create the many verb tenses.

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Writing with a
Sense of Purpose

This section ought to be read in conjunction with the section on Tone, as tone and purpose are very much related: one's tone is defined by why one is writing and vice versa.

It's important to know why you're writing. If your purpose in writing is to please your instructor or to get a better grade, that may not be enough. Many instructors devise strategies to persuade their students to write for a larger community — publishing students' best work in a newsletter or online publication, asking students to send their papers to local newspapers, putting their best papers in a collection in the college library — something that allows students to feel that more than one person, sitting alone at the kitchen table, is going to read this bit of writing. Knowing that there is more than one person to please, a public "out there," is a motivation in itself to do well, to communicate clearly. It will help establish, also, that consistent sense of tone that is so important to a paper's success.

Beyond that feeling that there is an audience out there, waiting breathlessly for this paper you're working on, it helps to have a clear sense of what you're trying to do for this audience. Are you trying to entertain them? That is surely a lofty purpose: writing to lighten someone's spirits is not a project to be undertaken lightly. Is your paper a matter of self-expression? Do you have opinions or feelings that you need to share with others? Are you trying to persuade others that you have a view of things that is clear-sighted, useful, and needs to be shared? Or that someone else's position is faulty, muddle-headed, or otherwise wrong? Are you trying to provide an exposition of facts or process or definition that others can take advantage of, or are you trying to persuade them of the rightness of a moral or ethical position? Do you want your audience to read your paper and then act, filled with new energy because of what you've told them? The objectivity, mood, and earnestness of your prose will be determined by this attitude or sense of purpose.

The writing process is normally aided by a sense of pressure. This paper that we're working on is something that has to be written — not just because we must please our writing instructors or because we need a good grade in this course (those pressures have their own sense of emergency) but because there is information or a point of view that we need to share with the reader. Karl Schnapp, an English professor at Naugatuck Valley Community College in Waterbury, Connecticut, calls this sense of pressure exigence.

Exigence consists of the circumstances that necessitate communication. For example, if you fall down the cellar stairs and lie at the bottom screaming for help, then exigence is easy to understand: you have fallen, and you can't get up. Those are "the circumstances that necessitate communication." Here is another example. You buy your Aunt Louise a scanner for her birthday so she can monitor all the emergency and police radio activity in her neighborhood, but she says the programming directions are too complicated and she gives the scanner back to you. When you try to program it for Auntie, you discover she's right. So you write the manufacturer to complain about their programming instructions. Those are "the circumstances that necessitate communication." In a word, exigence is a problem, a defect, a challenge out there in the real world that compels people to communicate. Sometimes these problems are economic: the shortage of financial aid for students, the lack of money for necessities of life, the unwise manner in which tax dollars are spent by our government. Other times the defects are political: bickering over a recycling program among factions on the city council, a quarrel between members of a union over whether or not to strike. Sometimes the challenges are social: the deportation to immigrants, the treatment of people with racial, ethnic, or physical differences. Sometimes the flaws are personal: the need to vent anger about a casual remark that was taken as an insult, the desire to establish or maintain friendly ties with acquaintances or co-workers or family (please note that not all exigences are negative; in reality, many are positive), the need to relieve feelings of pain caused by the breakdown of a long-term relationship. In all these cases (and many more in our everyday lives), circumstances exist that call out for us to communicate with others. Understanding exigence is essential because without it we cannot effectively determine purpose. 1998 (used with Professor Schnapp's permission)

The pressure to write is determined by the relationship between you as writer and the audience you're trying to reach and affect. Let's examine two essay beginnings with an eye toward determining the writer's purpose and how that sense of purpose establishes tone and word choice. Let's say that for a course in Art Appreciation we have to write (there's a bit of pressure right there!) a brief analysis of a famous painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (c. 1558; Oil on canvas, mounted on wood, 73.5 x 112 cm; Musees royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels). [Clicking on the image below will call up a larger version of the same painting —179 kb, not recommended with slow connections.] As you read the beginnings, think about the relationship between writer and audience and how this might have influenced how the writer wrote as he or she did.

Landscape with the Fall of Icarus
[First Version]

The first thing that grabbed my eye when I checked out Bruegel's painting was the red jacket worn by the guy in the foreground. Except for the splotchy sun in the sky, it's really the only bit of color in the whole thing, and I really like bright, warm colors like that. Then I noticed the fact that this guy's looking straight ahead at the horse's rear end in front of his plow. "Whoa, Nelly!" I thought to myself. What a weird thing to put in the middle of a pretty painting! It wasn't until later that I noticed a pair of legs sticking out of the ocean down in the lower right-hand corner of the painting. Somebody's drowning. Of course, none of the three guys in the painting (the plowman, the shepherd, and the fisherman) are paying much attention to it either; in fact, they're pretty much oblivious to what's going on in the water. Even the boat is headed in the wrong direction, and no one seems to give a darn or is going to save whoever belongs to those legs splashing into the water. . . .

Our first version of this first essay's beginning is casual, to say the least. Some of the language, the choice of words, would be typical of friends standing in front of a painting at the museum, remarking in an off-handed way some of its more obvious characteristics. Words and phrases such as "guy," "pretty much," "horse's rear end," "weird thing," "give a darn," "pretty," and, of course, "Whoa, Nelly!" would be inappropriate in formal academic discourse. It's not so much that those words are wrong, exactly, just that they are neither precise nor helpful in our understanding of how the painting registers its effects on the viewer. In addition, the analysis of the painting is done entirely from the viewpoint of the first-person singular, "I." Again, that's not exactly wrong, but the reader is impressed by the fact that these impressions could be entirely those of the eccentric individual writing, not that these are impressions that ought to be shared by others. The reader is not aware of any need the writer might have to make us feel or know something about this painting.

The essay excerpt below is taken from a paper by Bea Wildred, who gives us her gracious permission to use this text. Her more objective, academically appropriate essay begins this way:

Bea Wildred
Introduction to Art
Professor Allegre
Capital Community College
14 April 1998

An Analysis of
Landscape with the Fall of Icarus
[Second Version]

Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, impresses the viewer first with the softness of sunshine and the bucolic pleasures of the countryside. The everyday pursuits of the three common men pictured — the plowman, the shepherd, and the fisherman — are being carried out in earnest, but with apparent ease and even pleasure. The shepherd lifts his face to the sky, seemingly unconcerned that his sheep are grazing perilously close to the seacliff's edge; the other two are a bit more intent on their work. The details of the foreground — the way the plowman's feet tread upon the neatly folded soil behind the plow — blend toward the vague but powerful treatment of the background's mysteries: the nearly obscured and whitened mountains, the majestic (if somewhat cloudy) city along the far shore, and the ruined castle in the sea with its cave-like entry.

The glow of the setting sun (its golden light nearly palpable in the sky) is mirrored by a splash of light in the far sea, but its main effect is in the foreground, the illumination of the commonplace activities of the plowman and the shepherd. The most vivid color in the painting is the reddish orange of the plowman's shirt, juxtaposed as it is to the natural earth tones of horse and dirt surrounding it. Even the shepherd's shadow has an ephemeral quality as the light hits him and his plow nearly horizontally. Whatever energy exists in the painting is moving toward the left side; the plowman, face downward, plods in that direction, as does his horse (whose backside also indecorously confronts the viewer). They move downward and to the left, toward the delicate tracery (like a Chinese screen) of the large tree on the left edge.

All of this occurs to the viewer before the central event of the painting (as announced in the painting's title) reveals itself to his attention: the splash of a pair of legs as the fallen Icarus plunges into the sea. In the lower right-hand corner of the painting, the painfully splayed legs, their delicate pinkness, are all that we see of the fallen mythological figure. They are caught at that precise instant that this symbol of human pride or hubris is about to disappear forever from the world's attention (ironically, of course, in a world where no one is paying attention). We are the only ones who will ever know. All of the energies of the painting lead away from this disturbing and important event: the plowman and shepherd, oblivious, go about their business, as does the fully-rigged boat (also moving toward the left), sailing away from the fallen figure. . . .

Points to Ponder: Which essay would you find more helpful in your understanding of the painting's effects? Can you relate this to the writer's apparent sense of purpose in each case? There is no "I" in the second version of the essay's beginning. Do you miss that personal element or does the essay work better without it? Does the second version ever come too close to being stuffy? The writer of the second version seems to have a larger vocabulary than the writer of the first version. Words such as "bucolic," "ephemeral," "palpable," "juxtapose," "ironically," "backside," and "energies" come to mind. Did you have to look up any of those words? What impression does that vocabulary have on you as reader? Is there already a thesis statement in this essay or is one about to suggest itself? Can you say what it would be? The author of this piece is neither an artist nor a critic and so lacks some of the sophistication that other student-writers (art majors, say) might have. What other details in the painting or its composition would you select to write about? If you'd like to experiment with this sense of purpose, try writing on a piece of art work of your own choosing. Visit the Texas.net Museum of Art and choose a painting that appeals to you. Then, using the Untimed Exercise Sheet (which will open in its own window), write one paragraph that sounds as if you're talking over the painting with a close friend and then another paragraph that sounds as though you're trying to help a serious group of readers in the general public understand what's going on in the painting. (If you want to save your writing, you'll have to copy and paste the text into a word-processing document.)

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Guide to Grammar and Writing

Principles of Composition

Index

REF

QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Comparison chart

Qualitative versus Quantitative comparison chart

	Qualitative	Quantitative
Purpose	The purpose is to explain and gain insight and understanding of phenomena through intensive collection of narrative data Generate hypothesis to be test , inductive.	The purpose is to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena through focused collection of numerical data. Test hypotheses, deductive.
Approach to Inquiry	subjective, holistic, process- oriented	Objective, focused, outcome- oriented
Hypotheses	Tentative, evolving, based on particular study	Specific, testable, stated prior to particular study
Research Setting	Controlled setting not as important	Controlled to the degree possible
Sampling	Purposive: Intent to select “small, ” not necessarily representative, sample in order to get in-depth understanding	Random: Intent to select “large, ” representative sample in order to generalize results to a population
Measurement	Non-standardized, narrative (written word), ongoing	Standardized, numerical (measurements, numbers), at the end
Design and Method	Flexible, specified only in general terms in advance of study Nonintervention, minimal disturbance All Descriptive— History, Biography, Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, Case Study, (hybrids of these) Consider many variable, small group	Structured, inflexible, specified in detail in advance of study Intervention, manipulation, and control Descriptive Correlation Causal-Comparative Experimental Consider few variables, large group
Data Collection Strategies	Document and artifact (something observed) that is collection (participant, non-participant). Interviews/Focus Groups (un-/structured, in-/formal). Administration of questionnaires (open ended). Taking of extensive, detailed field notes.	Observations (non-participant). Interviews and Focus Groups (semi-structured, formal). Administration of tests and questionnaires (close ended).
Data Analysis	Raw data are in words. Essentially ongoing, involves using the observations/comments to come to a conclusion.	Raw data are numbers Performed at end of study, involves statistics (using numbers to come to conclusions).
Data Interpretation	Conclusions are tentative (conclusions can change), reviewed on an ongoing basis, conclusions are generalizations. The validity of the inferences/generalizations are the reader’s responsibility.	Conclusions and generalizations formulated at end of study, stated with predetermined degree of certainty. Inferences/generalizations are the researcher’s responsibility. Never 100% certain of our findings.

Contents: Qualitative vs Quantitative

• 1 Type of data
• 2 Applications of Quantitative and Qualitative Data
  • 2.1 When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research?
• 3 Analysis of data
  • 3.1 Data Explosion
• 4 Effects of Feedback
• 5 References

Type of data

Qualitative research gathers data that is free-form and non-numerical, such as diaries, open-ended questionnaires, interviews and observations that are not coded using a numerical system.

On the other hand, quantitative research gathers data that can be coded in a numerical form. Examples of quantitative research include experiments or interviews/questionnaires that used closed questions or rating scales to collect information.

Applications of Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Qualitative data and research is used to study individual cases and to find out how people think or feel in detail. It is a major feature of case studies.

Quantitative data and research is used to study trends across large groups in a precise way. Examples include clinical trials or censuses.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research?

Quantitative and qualitative research techniques are each suitable in specific scenarios. For example, quantitative research has the advantage of scale. It allows for vast amounts of data to be collected -- and analyzed -- from a large number of people or sources. Qualitative research, on the other hand, usually does not scale as well. It is hard, for example, to conduct in-depth interviews with thousands of people or to analyze their responses to open-ended questions. But it is relatively easier to analyze survey responses from thousands of people if the questions are closed-ended and responses can be mathematically encoded in, say, rating scales or preference ranks.

Conversely, qualitative research shines when it is not possible to come up with closed-ended questions. For example, marketers often use focus groups of potential customers to try and gauge what influences brand perception, product purchase decisions, feelings and emotions. In such cases, researchers are usually at very early stages of forming their hypotheses and do not want to limit themselves to their initial understanding. Qualitative research often opens up new options and ideas that quantitative research cannot due to its closed-ended nature.

Analysis of data

Qualitative data can be difficult to analyze, especially at scale, as it cannot be reduced to numbers or used in calculations. Responses may be sorted into themes, and require an expert to analyze. Different researchers may draw different conclusions from the same qualitative material.

Quantitative data can be ranked or put into graphs and tables to make it easier to analyze.

Data Explosion

Data is being generated at an increasing rate because of the expansion in the number of computing devices and the growth of the Internet. Most of this data is quantitative and special tools and techniques are evolving to analyze this "big data".

Effects of Feedback

The following diagram illustrates the effects of positive and negative feedback on Qualitative vs Quantitative research:

References

• Qualitative Quantitative - Simply Psychology
• Qualitative and Quantitative Research - University of Oxford

6 Types of Motivation Explained

Royale Scuderi

Royale Scuderi is a creative strategist, consultant and writer who specializes in cultivating human potential for happiness, health and fulfillment.

What makes people do what they do? Why do some people succeed while others fail? The answer just might be motivation. We know that from an early age motivation prompts us to want to learn and exhibit different types of behavior and stimulates us to accomplish new feats of success. As we grow and mature through the different stages of our lives, we hopefully learn what motivates us and what does not.

What is motivation?

Motivation is generally defined as the force that compels us to action. It drives us to work hard and pushes us to succeed. Motivation influences our behavior and our ability to accomplish goals.

There are many different forms of motivation. Each one influences behavior in its own unique way. No single type of motivation works for everyone. People’s personalities vary and so accordingly does the type of motivation, that is most effective at inspiring their conduct.

Types of Motivation

Incentive

A form of motivation that involves rewards, both monetary and nonmonetary is often called incentive motivation. Many people are driven by the knowledge that they will be rewarded in some manner for achieving a certain target or goal. Bonuses and promotions are good examples of the type of incentives that are used for motivation.

Fear

Fear motivation involves consequences. This type of motivation is often one that is utilized when incentive motivation fails. In a business style of motivation often referred to as the, “carrot and stick,” incentive is the carrot and fear is the stick.

Punishment or negative consequences are a form of fear motivation. This type of motivation is commonly used to motivate students in the education system and also frequently in a professional setting to motivate employees. If we break the rules or fail to achieve the set goal, we are penalized in some way.

Achievement

Achievement motivation is also commonly referred to as the drive for competency. We are driven to achieve goals and tackle new challenges. We desire to improve skills and prove our competency both to others and to ourselves. Generally, this feeling of accomplishment and achievement is intrinsic in nature.

However, in certain circumstances be motivation for achievement may involve external recognition. We often have a desire or need to receive positive feedback from both our peers and our superiors. This may include anything from an award to a simple pat on the back for a job well done.

Growth

The need for self-improvement is truly an internal motivation. A burning desire to increase our knowledge of ourselves and of the outside world can be a very strong form of motivation. We seek to learn and grow as individuals.

Motivation for growth can also be seen in our yearning for change. Many of us are wired by our personality or upbringing to constantly seek a change in either our external or internal environment or knowledge. We view stagnation to be both negative and undesirable.

Power

The motivation of power can either take the form of a desire for autonomy or other desire to control others around us. We want to have choices and control over our own lives. We strive for the ability to direct the manner in which we live now and the way our lives will unfold in the future.

We also often aspire to control others around us. The desire for control is stronger in some people than others. In some cases, the craving for power induces people to harmful, immoral, or illegal behavior. In other situations, the longing for power is merely a desire to affect the behavior of others. We simply want people to do what we want, according to our timetable, and the way we want it done.

Social

Many people are motivated by social factors. This may be a desire to belong and to be accepted by a specific peer group or a desire to relate to the people in our sphere or in the larger world. We have an innate need to feel a connection with others. We also have the need for acceptance and affiliation.

A genuine and passionate desire to contribute and to make a difference in the lives of others can be another form of social motivation. If we have a longing to make a contribution to the world around us, it is generally a sign that we are motivated by social factors.

The real importance of understanding the different types of motivation is in our ability to determine which form of motivation is the most effective for inspiring the desired behavior in either others or ourselves. None of these styles of motivation is inherently good or bad, the positive or negative outcome is truly determined by the way they are used.

Ref. http://www.lifehack.org/articles/productivity/6-types-of-motivation-explained.html